Turtles+by+Tim.+H.+and+Ben.+B.

= TURTLES & HUMANS =

Introduction
====God created all things in the world and made them analogous and beautiful in certain ways. The purpose of this wiki page is to discuss two of those divinely created beings: humans and turtles. We will go through the anatomy, physiology, taxonomy, and ecology of these two species comparing and contrasting them as we go along. Buckle up your seat-belt, turn the air-conditioning on, and absquatulate with us on this informative journey through the human and turtle anatomies. You just might learn something.====



= Humans =

Taxonomy

Humans: The taxonomy of humans is very familiar and is denoted by the following:

In other words, this is how we classify ourselves and distinguish ourselves (scientifically) from other living organisms.

(Picture citation: __ http://landeslifescience7.wikispaces.com/file/view/human_taxonomy.jpg/253608144/422x550/human_taxonomy.jpg __)

Human Digestive System: c1: []

The human digestive system begins in the mouth where food is taken in and digested mechanically (c1). Salivary glands mix enzymes within the mouth to commence the breakdown process. On the way to the stomach, the food travels through the pharynx, pass the epiglottis and into the esophagus by means of peristalsis--which are rhythmic contractions along the alimentary canal (c1). Upon reaching the stomach and after being combined with bile from the liver and gallbladder, the food is mechanically and chemically digested. Nutrients diffuse across the stomach lining before the remnants are passed through the pyloric sphincter. Food then travels into the small intestine and from there into the large intestine. In the smaller intestine more nutrients are taken from the food but in the larger intestine food is not largely digested but rather prepared for excretion (c1). Once again, the gall bladder stores and secretes bile passed on to it by the liver at the stimulation of peristalsis. The liver filters the chemicals and substances that enter the body before compartmentalizing it. The pancreas secretes specific acids that work with the bile from the liver to break down fats, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, etc. in the stomach.



(Picture Citation: __ http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_3qsy4wy-tWc/TOjpkz43t7I/AAAAAAAAAGQ/s_LDGz9neeE/s1600/Digestive+system+for+human++Digest.gif __)

Human Excretory System: []

The excretory system functions to remove waste from the body. The kidneys filter the blood and extract urea, which is passed on to the ureters. Above the kidneys are adrenal glands that add enzymes to the blood in response to certain stimuli. Following, the ureters give urea to the bladder where it is stored until it is ready to be passed through the urethra--where urine exists the body in both males ad females--and out of the external genitalia for excretion. The functions of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are intricate, and the end result is urine.



(Picture Citation: __ http://www.desktopclass.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/urinary-system-diagram.jpg __)

Human Respiratory System:

Air is breathed into the body with the mouth and nose and passes through the nasal cavity into the pharynx. The epiglottis moves reflexively, exposing the trachea and larynx. The air then passes through the larynx, or voice-box, as it flows through the trachea which is lined with cartilage rings. Next, the imbibed air dichotomizes into two medium-sized tubes called bronchi. Once the bronchi enter the lungs, they themselves also split up into smaller tubes called bronchioles. These bronchioles inside the lungs connect to sacs called alveoli. Alveoli are situated very close to capillaries and are the site at which oxygen from the fresh air diffuses into the blood. All the while, our diaphragm pushes on the rib cage and allows us to draw air in, and vice versa when the air needs to be expelled. Respiration refers to the complete breathing process and its product, oxygen, is combined with the products of digestion to provide the body's muscles with energy for movement.



(Picture Citation: __ http://mrhartansscienceclass.pbworks.com/f/1327587715/01%20Respiratory%20System.jpg __)

Human Circulatory System:

The heart contains four chambers: two atria, and two ventricles (c). Oxygen-deficient blood enters the right atrium through the vena cava; blood then passes through the right ventricle; oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium at a later stage, and is finally flows into the left ventricle from where it enters an artery through the atria (c). The hearbeat results from the exchange and the coronary pressure-balanced movements. Arteries carry blood to the heart and veins carry blood away from the heart (c) Capillaries are blood vessels. Blood is the medium of transport in the body and plasma is the liquid substance within it (c). Hemoglobin is a "red-pigmented protein that binds loosely to oxygen atoms and carbon dioxide molecules" (c). On the other hand, platelets are "small disk-shaped blood fragments produced in the bone marrow" (c). Asthma is a circulatory system disease whereby breathing is obstructed.

[]



(Picture Citation: __ http://theevolutionstore.com/modules/store/images/products/276_2.jpg __)

Human Nervous system:

The cerebrum, part of the foremost brain, facilitates the accommodation of nearly ten billion cells and supports the functions of thought and conscious action with its various lobes (c4). The frontal lobe helps us reason and participate in speech, the parietal lobe helps us move in response to stimuli, the temporal lobes assist in auditory processing, and the occipital lobes are the reservoirs of our vision. Moving on in the brain's structure, we find the medulla which is "the swelling at the tip of the brain that serves as the passageway for nerves extending to and from the brain." From the base of the brain to the bottom of the backbone, the spinal cord extends and conducts brain impulses to nerves in the body (c3). The cerebellum is involved in cognitive functions and in emotional responses such as fear and anger. The olfactory bulb is involved in the perception of odors and other smells. The lower or hindmost part of the brain, the oblongata, is contiguous and analogous to the spinal cord. Finally, the spinal cord in humans handles the majority of our automatic functions like breathing and heart-beating.

__ http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Human-Central-Nervous-System.topicArticleId-8741,articleId-8723.html __ (c3) __ http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html __ (c4)



(Picture Citation: __ http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-p7ASPgfdApI/TbpeMqi6YoI/AAAAAAAAAEY/Avvf-c25LV0/s1600/human-biology-map.jpg __)



(Graphic Citation: __ http://morphonix.com/software/education/science/brain/game/specimens/images/nervous_system.gif __)

__Human Locomotion__: (skeletal and muscular systems)

The skeletal and muscular systems work together to facilitate functions of motion--like walking, running, swinging a bat--officially called locomotion. Beginning with the skeletal system, the appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones and is comprised of the bones that make up the outer extremities or appendages, hence the name. The axial skeleton comprises of the bones oriented on the main or torso section of the body, including the head and neck. Smooth muscle lines large organs and blood vessels while cardiac muscles enable heart function. However, the type of muscle most important to locomotion is skeletal muscle. These are muscles that connect at both ends to the stiff skeletal bones that, when the muscles contract, pull the rest of the body along. In other words, human motion is a diverse and complex group effort between various muscles and bones. Cartilage tissue is found in several areas of the body, including the joints, and cushions the skeletal bones as they move and grind past and along with each other. Tendons on the other hand, connect muscles directly to bones in certain areas. Joints are the locations where two or more bones make contact. Again, cardiac muscle is smooth, involuntary muscle that surrounds the heart and smooth muscle is also a type of involuntary muscle that lines the walls of hollow organs. In conclusion, skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle that is striated (striped) with various bands that serve as the sites of ATP inspired propulsion.

<span style="font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">

(Picture Citation: __ http://www.stpeters.k12.nf.ca/skel.jpg __)



(Picture Citation: __ http://homepage.smc.edu/wissmann_paul/anatomy1/1musclesatside.jpg __)

=<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #00ffff; display: block; font-size: 320%; text-align: center;">Turtles =

**First, lets begin with a little background on turtles**.......( ** ecology ** ) Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area of the cloaca. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire. This paragraph denotes two main differences in turtles that are not found in humans. First, we do not live largely underwater and secondly we cannot absorb dissolved oxygen in water. However, we two have large tubes in our bodies that are richly supplied with blood which allow us to freely consume air and the gases it provides for transport throughout our bodies. (__ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle#Ecology_and_life_history __)

Turtles lay eggs, like other reptiles, which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Their albumen or yoke is white and contains a different protein from bird eggs, such that it will not coagulate when cooked. In some species, temperature determines whether or not an egg will develop into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand when a turtle is laying its eggs and reproducing. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. There are no known species of turtle in which the mother cares for the young as this is largely not needed. (__ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle#Ecology_and_life_history __)

T urtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually. A turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. The liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes. (__ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle#Ecology_and_life_history __)

FOOD PREFERENCES AND RESOURCES for Various Turtles (__ http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/diet.htm __)
 * 1. || Depending on the species, sea turtles may be carnivorous (meat eating), herbivorous (plant eating), or omnivorous (eating both meat and plants). The jaw structure of many species is adapted for their diet. ||
 * 2. || Green sea turtles have finely serrated jaws adapted for a vegetarian diet of sea grasses and algae. As adults, these are the only herbivorous sea turtles. ||
 * 3. || Some species change eating habits as they age. For example, green sea turtles are mainly carnivorous from hatching until juvenile size; they then progressively shift to an herbivorous diet. ||
 * 4. || A hawksbill has a narrow head with jaws meeting at an acute angle, adapted for getting food from crevices in coral reefs. They eat sponges, tunicates, shrimps, and squids. ||
 * 5. || Loggerheads' and ridleys' jaws are adapted for crushing and grinding. Their diet consists primarily of crabs, molluscs, shrimps, jellyfish, and vegetation. ||
 * 6. || Leatherbacks have delicate scissor-like jaws that would be damaged by anything other than their normal diet of jellyfish, tunicates, and other soft-bodied animals. The mouth cavity and throat are lined with papillae (spine-like projections) pointed backward to help them swallow soft foods. ||
 * 7. || Researchers continue to study the feeding habits of flatbacks. There is evidence that they are opportunistic feeders that eat seaweeds, cuttlefish, and sea cucumbers. ||
 * 8. || In a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carnivorous diet. ||
 * [[image:http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/images/pic-hand-feeding.jpg width="260" height="184" caption="While their diets may vary in the wild, in a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carefully managed carnivorous diet."]] ||  ||
 * 6. || Leatherbacks have delicate scissor-like jaws that would be damaged by anything other than their normal diet of jellyfish, tunicates, and other soft-bodied animals. The mouth cavity and throat are lined with papillae (spine-like projections) pointed backward to help them swallow soft foods. ||
 * 7. || Researchers continue to study the feeding habits of flatbacks. There is evidence that they are opportunistic feeders that eat seaweeds, cuttlefish, and sea cucumbers. ||
 * 8. || In a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carnivorous diet. ||
 * [[image:http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/images/pic-hand-feeding.jpg width="260" height="184" caption="While their diets may vary in the wild, in a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carefully managed carnivorous diet."]] ||  ||
 * 8. || In a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carnivorous diet. ||
 * [[image:http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/images/pic-hand-feeding.jpg width="260" height="184" caption="While their diets may vary in the wild, in a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carefully managed carnivorous diet."]] ||  ||
 * [[image:http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/images/pic-hand-feeding.jpg width="260" height="184" caption="While their diets may vary in the wild, in a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carefully managed carnivorous diet."]] ||  ||
 * [[image:http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/images/pic-hand-feeding.jpg width="260" height="184" caption="While their diets may vary in the wild, in a zoological environment all sea turtle species can be maintained on a carefully managed carnivorous diet."]] ||  ||

<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #008000; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 160%;">Taxonomy <span style="color: #008000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 22.4px;">Turtles: The taxonomy for turtles is less familiar and is denoted by the following. (Note, however, that the taxonomy stops at "Order" because there are many types and species of turtle beyond this point as opposed to there being only one species of human.}

=<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #ff00ff; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Domain: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Life = =<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #800080; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Kingdom : <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #800080; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;"> Animlia = =<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #800000; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Phylum: <span style="color: #800000; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;"> Chordata = =<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #800080; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Class: <span style="color: #800080; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Reptilia = =<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #ff00ff; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Order: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;"> Testudines =

For sea turtles the Family is Chelonioidea, the genus // Testudo //, and the species // mydas //. *
(__ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_turtle __)

<span style="background-color: #404040; color: #008080; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 180%;">Turtle Digestive System
(__ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/digest.htm __)

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Not surprisingly, the turtle digestive system is very similar to that of a human.




 * (Picture Citation: ** __ http://visual.merriam-webster.com/images/animal-kingdom/reptiles/turtle/anatomy-turtle.jpg __** ) **


 * Mouth and Tongue **

The mouth of a turtle is a cavity found inside its skull. The tongue is flat and wide and fastened securely to the bottom of its mouth to prevent it from moving. Air, water, food and other essential nutrients enter the turtle's body most often by way of the mouth where initial digestion takes place.


 * Esophagus and Stomach **

The esophagus is a tubular, digestive structure that is connected to the stomach. Powerful digestive enzymes and acids within the turtle's stomach decompose the food in the stomach much like it is done in humans. The walls of the organs in the digestive system are composed of smooth muscle that helps to push the food through the system by peristalsis-like motions and aids in decomposition of the food by mechanically churning during the digestive process.


 * Liver, Gall Bladder and Pancreas **

The liver is the largest organ in the body of a turtle. The liver has numerous functions and capabilities among which one is bile production. The gall bladder, on the other hand, is a small organ hidden behind the liver that transfers the bile produced in the liver to the small intestine--rather than the stomach--during the digestive process. Finally, the pancreas is a liver-like gland located next to the small intestine. It aids to the digestive process by introducing digestive enzymes into the small intestine as well


 * Small and Large Intestine **

The small intestine is connects the stomach to the large intestine. Villi (or villus, singular) located on the small intestine wall absorb food into the body of a turtle. The large intestine, which is also known as the colon in a turtle, reabsorbs excess waste and water produced by the digestive system, much like a human's large intestine.


 * Anus **

The last part of the digestive system or both turtles and humans is the anus. This is where the feces (or wastes with all their useful nutrients extracted) exit the turtle's body.

= Turtle Excretory System = ( __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/reprexe.htm __ )

The excretory system of the turtle is responsible for removing harmful wastes from the turtle's body and blood just like a human's. The kidneys of the turtle performs the blood filtering process and the wastes are then sent to the bladder as urine. In sea turtles, the kidneys are also aided by the salt gland to get rid of the excess salt in the sea water. The bladder is the storage place of urine in both humans and turtles. From the bladder, the urine goes to the cloaca which is analogous to the human urethra and is where urine leaves the turtle body. The cloaca is also used to take in oxygen and other nutrients in sea turtles when these chemicals reach critically low levels.

(Picture Citations: __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/reprod-f.gif __)

Male is to the left and female to the right.

= = = Turtle Respiratory System =

( __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/resp.htm __ )

Metabolism, which is essential for the turtles survival as well as diving ability, requires oxygen. However, the metabolic process also produces a harmful side effect gas called carbon dioxide. The respiratory system of a turtle is much like that of a normal human with the addition of some special features that come in handy. All turtles have lungs and must take in oxygen from the air. In addition they often times inflate their lungs to act as floating devices while they bask in the water.


 * Mouth, Pharynx and Cloaca **

Food, water and other nutrients are ingested into two main cavities in most turtles, the mouth and the pharynx. These two cavities are located inside of a turtles skull. However, turtles also have the ability to take in oxygen through their cloaca. This special feature is used in extreme situations typically to keep the turtle alive when oxygen levels are low: like when diving or hibernating.


 * Glottis and Larynx **

The glottis of the turtle is a small opening positioned behind the tongue that acts as a barrier between the pharynx and the larynx.. The larynx is connected to the glottis and leads to the trachea. It is considered to be the upper most portion of the respiratory duct. This is much like the human pharynx, larynx, glottis and trachea.


 * Trachea and Bronchus tubes **

The trachea is a lengthy, hollow tube, which is much like that of a human. Mid-way down, the trachea splits into two separate tubes called bronchus tubes (plural: bronchi). Each bronchus then leads into a lung in almost the exact same fashion as bronchi do in humans.


 * Lungs (right and left) **

Turtle lungs are designed in the exact format as the lungs of a human. The lungs which lie directly underneath of the turtle's carapace (or upper shell portion) are big, sponge like organs which are also typically pink in color. Throughout the lungs the bronchi break into smaller tube like structures called bronchioles. The bronchioles then continue the pattern, decreasing in size until they come to their end in what is called ann alveolus (plural: alveoli). The alveoli are small groups of air sacs where the gas exchange takes place. The oxygen from the air dissolves into the blood and simultaneously the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the air to be expelled.



(Picture Citation: __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/respire.gif __)

= Turtle Circulatory System = ( http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/circ.htm )

Oxygen and essential nutrients that are vital for metabolic processes are transported throughout the turtle body by blood. The circulatory system of turtles in general is fairly simple. The system consists of the heart, veins, arteries and capillaries. Sea turtles unlike humans have a three chambered heart. The heart consists of the left auricle, the right auricle and the sole ventricle. The ventricle is somewhat separated by a partial septum which helps to minimize the mixing of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.


 * Blood Flow **

The process begins when deoxygenated blood flows into the right auricle. The auricle contracts and forces the deoxygenated blood into the ventricle. The ventricle forces the blood into the lungs of the turtle where carbon dioxide is extracted and oxygen is added at the capillary sites. The blood, which is now oxygenated, then enters the left auricle. The left auricle subsequently contracts, forcing blood into the ventricle. The ventricle responds by sending the blood throughout the body. The oxygenated blood is carried away from the heart via arteries. As the arteries stretch throughout the turtles body, they become narrower and narrower until they are merely tiny blood vessels named capillaries. These capillaries form an exchange system of vital nutrients and oxygen between the cells of the body and the blood. The blood, thus deoxygenated, is returned to the heart through the turtles veins.





( Picture Citations: __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/nerv.htm __** and **

__ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2005/fitzpatrick/Sea%20Turtles/countercurrent%20arrows.GIF __ )

Turtle Nervous System
The nervous system of the turtle is composed of the brain, nerves and spinal cord. In addition, specialized cells called neurons are the signal transmitters throughout the system. The brain is the center of a turtle's nervous system and it is there that the impulses carried by the nerves from the sensory organs are processed. Although the brain of turtles is more advanced than an amphibian's it is primitive in regards to birds and mammals. The spinal cord of the turtle extends down it's back and is protected by the carapace vertebrae. It is through the spinal cord that information is carried to and from the brain. Though turtles exhibit all the same senses as most other organisms, their sense of smell is more highly developed. Some turtles can even smell underwater.



( Picture Citation: __ http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/B/Robert.A.Berkowitz-1/Scratch-swim-flexion%20intracell%20turtle%20w-legs.jpg __)

= Turtle Locomotion = = (skeletal and muscular systems) = ( __ http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Pleasants/skele.htm __ )

**Skeletal**: Bones make up the majority of the skeletal system in turtles as opposed to amphibians who have a large amount of cartilage in their system. Connective tissue in the turtles is mineralized after birth and becomes bone. The interior of turtle bones consists of sponge-like marrow and in some cases the marrow inside the bones produces both red and white blood cells. The turtle skeleton is divided into two main sections, the endoskeleton and the ectoskeleton. The endoskeleton consists of all the internal bones and the ectoskeleton of a turtle is its shell. The endoskeleton is further divided into two subsections called the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is made up of the skull and both the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. The appendicular skeleton consists of the remaining bones in the turtle's interior.

ECTOSKELETON
 * turtle shell

ENDOSKELETON Skull - protects the brain (actually composed of several bones fused together) Cervical Vertebrae - neck bones (turtles typically have 8) Thoracic Vertebrae - fused to the carapace plates (ribs branch off from here and there are usually 10)
 * Axial Skeleton
 * Appendicular Skeleton- the limbs are designed for land life and specialized for swimming.

All in all, the turtle skeletal system is much like that of humans and is used to facilitate motion with the following system......

**Muscular**: The muscular system of a turtle is most likely the most similar system to humans in this reptile. In the system, muscles connect to bones and facilitate motion. Contrary to common conception all turtles are not "slow." Many of them are quite swift and are exceptional swimmers. All in all,the turtle muscular system contracts and pulls the skeletal bones along with it to initiate motion and carry out many of the functions required for the turtle to survive.



(Picture Citation:__ http://www.turtlehouse.ca/turtleskeleton.jpg __)



(Picture Citation: __ http://www.redorbit.com/media/uploads/2004/10/41_209715b29a9e504d51513793534ffc1d.jpg __)

<span style="background-color: #0000ff; color: #00ffff; display: block; font-size: 160%; text-align: center;">Works Cited


 * Citations are included beneath the title of each section of this wiki page. In essence, only one or two sources were used for each paragraph. Additional citations that need to be added are made here.***

~ Ben's brain. ~ Tim's brain. ~ HPS Anatomy Textbook