mongoose

Bear

** Digestive Tract ** Bears have a simple intestinal tract, of which the colon is the primary site of fermentation. They have a long gut for digesting grass, but do not digest starches well. Their small intestine is longer than that of the true carnivores, and the digestive tract lacks the features of the true herbivores. The barrel-shaped body of a bear is considered an indication of a long intestine. The brown bears' intestinal length (total and small) is greater than that of the American black bear's and giant panda's. Polar bears have the longest intestine. The sort intestine of giant pandas results in poor digestion efficiency. Only twenty to twenty-five percent of what they consume is digested; thus they must eat enormous amounts--twenty-two to forty pounds of leaves and stems daily--to gain minimal energy. They produce considerable feces, mostly undigested bamboo, passing it in only five to eight hours. The alimentary system of a sun bear cub must, for the first several weeks following birth, be externally stimulated for the urination and defecation processes to take place. The sow licks the cubs to provide this simulation. The American black bear must also at times perform this function.

** Respiration ** The lungs of bears are relatively large and their breathing rate is six to ten breaths per minute while resting, forty to eighty when hot and panting, and sometimes over one hundred breaths per minute during extreme exertion. The oxygen intake (resting) is reduced by approximately one half during hibernation.

Human

Disgestive System

Mouth- The **mouth** is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and saliva The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth. In addition to its primary role as the beginning of the digestive system, in humans the mouth also plays a significant role in communication. While primary aspects of the voice are produced in the throat, the tongue, lips, and jaw are also needed to produce the range of sounds included in human language. The mouth, normally moist, is lined with a mucous membrane, and contains the teeth. The lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin, which covers most of the body.y

Salivary Glands- The **salivary glands** in mammals are [|exocrine glands], [|glands] with ducts, that produce [|saliva]. They also secrete [|amylase], an [|enzyme] that breaks down [|starch] into [|maltose]. In other organisms such as [|insects], salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like [|silk] or glues, and [|fly] salivary glands contain [|polytene chromosomes] that have been useful in [|genetic] research.

Esophagus- The **esophagus** (**oesophagus**) is an [|organ] in [|vertebrates] which consists of a [|muscular] tube through which food passes from the [|pharynx] to the [|stomach]. During [|swallowing], food passes from the mouth through the [|pharynx] into the esophagus and travels via [|peristalsis] to the stomach. The word //esophagus// is derived from the [|Latin] //œsophagus//, which derives from the [|Greek] word //oisophagos//, lit. "entrance for eating." In humans the esophagus is continuous with the [|laryngeal] part of the [|pharynx] at the level of the C6 [|vertebra]. The esophagus passes through posterior mediastinum in thorax and enters abdomen through a hole in the diaphragm at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebrae (T10). It is usually about 10–50 cm long depending on individual height. It is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. Due to the [|inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle], the entry to the esophagus opens only when swallowing or vomiting.

Stomach- The **stomach** is a [|muscular], hollow, dilated part of the digestion system which functions as an important [|organ] of the digestive tract in some [|animals], including [|vertebrates], [|echinoderms], [|insects] (mid-gut), and [|molluscs]. It is involved in the second phase of [|digestion], following [|mastication] (chewing). The stomach is located between the [|esophagus] and the [|small intestine]. It secretes protein-digesting [|enzymes] and strong [|acids] to aid in food digestion, (sent to it via [|oesophageal] [|peristalsis]) through [|smooth muscular] contortions (called segmentation) before sending partially digested food ([|chyme]) to the small intestines. The word //stomach// is derived from the [|Latin] //stomachus// which is derived from the [|Greek] word //stomachos//, ultimately from //stoma// (στόμα), "mouth". The words //gastro-// and //gastric// (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word //gaster// (γαστήρ).

Small Instestine- The **small intestine** is the part of the [|gastrointestinal tract] following the [|stomach] and followed by the [|large intestine], and is where much of the [|digestion] and absorption of food takes place. In [|invertebrates] such as worms, the terms "gastrointestinal tract" and "large intestine" are often used to describe the entire [|intestine]. This article is primarily about the [|human] [|gut], though the information about its processes is directly applicable to most placental mammals. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals found in food. [|[][|2][|]] (A major exception to this are [|cows]; for information about digestion in cows and other similar mammals, see [|ruminants].)

Liver- The **liver** is a [|vital organ] present in [|vertebrates] and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including [|detoxification], [|protein synthesis], and production of biochemicals necessary for [|digestion]. The liver is necessary for survival; there is currently no way to compensate for the absence of liver function long term, although [|liver dialysis] can be used short term. This [|organ] plays a major role in [|metabolism] and has a number of functions in the body, including [|glycogen] storage, decomposition of red blood cells, [|plasma protein] synthesis, [|hormone] production, and detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the abdominal-pelvic region of the abdomen. It produces [|bile], an alkaline compound which aids in [|digestion] via the [|emulsification] of [|lipids]. The liver's highly specialized [|tissues] regulate a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions.[|[][|2][|]] Medical terms related to the liver often start in //hepato-// or //hepatic// from the [|Greek] word for liver, //hēpar// (ἡπαρ

Gallbladder- In [|vertebrates] the **gall bladder** (**cholecyst**, **gall bladder**, **biliary vesicle**) is a small [|organ] that aids mainly in fat [|digestion] and concentrates [|bile] produced by the [|liver]. In [|humans], the loss of the gall bladder is usually easily tolerated. The surgical removal of the gall bladder is called a [|cholecystectomy]. The gallbladder is a hollow system that sits just beneath the liver.[|[][|2][|]] In adults, the gall bladder measures approximately 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in length and 4 centimetres (1.6 in) in diameter when fully distended.[|[][|3][|]] It is divided into three sections: fundus, body and neck. The neck tapers and connects to the [|biliary tree] via the [|cystic duct], which then joins the [|common hepatic duct] to become the [|common bile duct]. At the neck of the gall bladder is a mucosal fold called Hartmann's pouch, where [|gallstones] commonly get stuck. The angle of the gall bladder is located between the [|costal margin] and the lateral margin of the [|rectus abdominis muscle].

Pancreas- he **pancreas** [|/ˈpæŋkriəs/] is a [|gland] [|organ] in the [|digestive] and [|endocrine system] of [|vertebrates]. It is both an [|endocrine gland] producing several important [|hormones], including [|insulin], [|glucagon], [|somatostatin], and [|pancreatic polypeptide], and a digestive organ, secreting [|pancreatic juice] containing [|digestive] [|enzymes] that assist the absorption of nutrients and the digestion in the [|small intestine]. These [|enzymes] help to further break down the [|carbohydrates], [|proteins], and [|lipids] in the [|chyme].

Large Instestine- The **large intestine** (or "large bowel") is the third-to-last part of the [|digestive system] in [|vertebrate] [|animals]. Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass useless [|waste material] from the body.[|[][|1][|]] This article is primarily about the human gut, though the information about its processes are directly applicable to most mammals. The large intestine consists of the [|cecum] and [|colon]. It starts in the right [|iliac region] of the [|pelvis], just at or below the right [|waist], where it is joined to the bottom end of the [|small intestine]. From here it continues up the [|abdomen], then across the width of the abdominal cavity, and then it turns down, continuing to its endpoint at the [|anus]. The large intestine is about 4.9 feet (1.5 m) long, which is about one-fifth of the whole length of the [|intestinal canal]. In [|Terminologia Anatomica] the large intestine includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. However, some sources exclude the anal canal.

Excretory System

Kidneys (Nephrons)- The **kidneys** are [|organs] that serve several essential regulatory roles in most [|animals], including [|vertebrates] and some [|invertebrates]. They are essential in the [|urinary system] and also serve [|homeostatic] functions such as the regulation of [|electrolytes], maintenance of [|acid–base balance], and regulation of [|blood pressure] (via maintaining salt and water balance). They serve the body as a natural filter of the [|blood], and remove wastes which are diverted to the [|urinary bladder]. In producing [|urine], the kidneys excrete wastes such as [|urea] and [|ammonium], and they are also responsible for the reabsorption of [|water], [|glucose], and [|amino acids]. The kidneys also produce [|hormones] including [|calcitriol], [|erythropoietin], and the enzyme [|renin]. Located at the rear of the [|abdominal cavity] in the [|retroperitoneum], the kidneys receive blood from the paired [|renal arteries], and drain into the paired [|renal veins]. Each kidney excretes urine into a [|ureter], itself a paired structure that empties into the [|urinary bladder]. [|Renal physiology] is the study of kidney function, while [|nephrology] is the medical specialty concerned with [|kidney diseases]. Diseases of the kidney are diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features. Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the [|nephritic] and [|nephrotic syndromes], [|renal cysts], [|acute kidney injury], [|chronic kidney disease], [|urinary tract infection], [|nephrolithiasis], and [|urinary tract obstruction].[|[][|1][|]] Various cancers of the kidney exist; the most common adult renal cancer is [|renal cell carcinoma]. Cancers, cysts, and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney, or [|nephrectomy]. When renal function, measured by [|glomerular filtration rate], is persistently poor, [|dialysis] and [|kidney transplantation] may be treatment options. Although they are not severely harmful, [|kidney stones] can be a pain and a nuisance. The removal of kidney stones includes sound wave treatment to break up the stones into smaller pieces, which are then passed through the urinary tract. One common symptom of kidney stones is a sharp pain in the medial/lateral segments of the lower back.

Ureters- In human [|anatomy], the **ureters** are tubes made of [|smooth muscle fibers] that propel [|urine] from the [|kidneys] to the [|urinary bladder]. In the adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long and ~3-4 mm in diameter. In humans, the ureters arise from the [|renal pelvis] on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the bladder on the front of the [|psoas major] muscle. The ureters cross the [|pelvic brim] near the bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they cross anteriorly). This is a common site for the impaction of [|kidney stones] (the others being the ureterovesical valve, where the ureter meets the bladder, and the pelvouteric junction, where the renal pelvis meets the ureter in the renal hilum). The ureters run posteroinferiorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis and then curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder through the back, at the vesicoureteric junction, running within the wall of the bladder for a few centimetres. The backflow of urine is prevented by valves known as ureterovesical valves. In females, the ureters pass through the [|mesometrium] and under the uterine arteries on the way to the [|urinary bladder]. An effective phrase for remembering this anatomical relationship is "water (ureters) under the bridge (uterine arteries or [|vas deferens])." Ureters are also found in all other [|amniote] species, although different ducts fulfill the same role in [|amphibians] and [|fish].

Urinary Bladder- the organ that collects [|urine] excreted by the [|kidneys] before disposal by [|urination]. A hollow[|[][|1][|]] [|muscular], and distensible (or elastic) organ, the bladder sits on the [|pelvic floor]. Urine enters the bladder via the [|ureters] and exits via the [|urethra]. [|Bladders] occur throughout much of the [|animal kingdom], but are very diverse in form and in some cases are not [|homologous] with the urinary bladder in humans. The human urinary bladder is derived in embryo from the [|urogenital sinus] and, it is initially continuous with the [|allantois]. In males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the [|prostate], and separated from the [|rectum] by the [|rectovesical excavation]. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina; thus, its maximum capacity is lower than in males. It is separated from the [|uterus] by the [|vesicouterine excavation]. In [|infants] and young children, the urinary bladder is in the [|abdomen] even when empty.

Urethrea- In [|anatomy], the **urethra** (from [|Greek] //οὐρήθρα// - //ourethra//) is a tube that connects the [|urinary bladder] to the genitals for the removal of fluids out of the body. In males, the urethra travels through the [|penis], and carries [|semen] as well as [|urine]. In females, the urethra is shorter and emerges above the vaginal opening. Women use their urethra only for urinating, but men use their urethra for both urinating and [|ejaculating]. The external [|urethral sphincter] is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over [|urination].

Respiratory System-